Ever since time immemorial, humans have been moving around the world to acquire, trade or settle in new areas. This process had been, in the past, inhibited by expensive and unavailable means of travel as well as restrictions by geo-political restrictions. In recent years, however, this movement and exchange of cultural values has accelerated. This has been as a result of improving means of travel, improved technology for communication and the need to collaborate with other communities for greater gain. This merger of cultures and the free movement of people from one geographical location to another has been christened globalization. Its effect to the world has been profound and most sectors of social life have been affected, either positively or negatively. Education is one the sectors that theorists have argued have been affected by globalization.
There are various globalization theories that either advocate for its benefits or argue about the negative outcomes arising from it including world system theory and transformationalism. Realism is a globalization theory that advocates for patriotism, with cultures being preserved. Cosmopolitanism, on the other hand, is a theory that advocates for full integration of humanity thus eliminating any biases that may exist. This study will examine both theories arguing that cosmopolitanism has had a better outcome in the education sector as compared to realism.
Key Terms
Globalization is a process that has enabled the movement of people from one geo-political zone to another, exchange of cultures and eliminated the notion of loyalty to a given political landscape (Steger 2003). This process has been gradual and its effects have been felt worldwide. Several theories have been founded to explain globalization including the world-system theory which argues that this process has been enhanced by capitalist behavior. The expansion of capitalists led to the division of the world into core, peripheral and semi-peripheral countries (Robinson 2009). Other theories include the world culture theory which sees globalization as the mixing of cultures, transformationalism which views global forces forcing the local force to adapt and regional bloc which perceives globalization as a result of more collaboration between countries, such as NATO, to spread capitalism. This process has enabled people to find opportunities in different political areas and hence led to the improvement of technology, quality of life as well as development of culture. This phenomenon has brought about the concept of world citizenship.
World citizenship is a concept that denotes an unbounded person. This means that world citizenship does not recognize political boundaries and bears no allegiance to a single geo-political region. As such, world citizenship views the world as a single unit without borders, restrictions or inhibiting differences. This term has an almost similar but different meaning to global citizenship.
Global citizenship is the ability of a person to appreciate the different cultures that exist in the world and still value national or patriotic values (Dower & Williams 2002). This means that while a person can be restricted by geo-political boundaries, the concern for other communities and ability to interact with such communities is still workable. A global citizen, therefore, values both his culture and respects that of other people living in other geo-political areas (Myers 2010). A global citizen serves as an example of realism.
Realism is a dogma that argues that geo-political boundaries are an important part of humanity. Human beings should be allowed to develop patriotic values for their countries and their cultures. As such, while they may support other cultures, their primary interest is the continued well being of their culture (Dunne & Schmidt 2008). Education theorists have argued for adoption of this principle in education such that students are taught values that are patriotic. However, others have argued that it would be more beneficial to approach education in a cosmopolitan manner.
Cosmopolitanism is a doctrine that supports world citizenship. It advocates for adoption of a unitary system in the world such that political and geographical boundaries are eliminated (Held 2004). This concept has been advocated for in education circles such that students are taught values that are of need to the globe rather than a given community. The debate between cosmopolitanism and realism has been rife but no approach has been chosen as the most appropriate. This means that different nations continue to implement different education systems most of them based on realism, with hints of cosmopolitanism. As such, debate has also continued on whether liberalism is the best approach to globalization.
Liberalism is the idea that a country has authority to alter its development by initiating change rather than change coming as a result of time or other forceful measures. The people living in a country are endowed with certain rights and privileges (Garsten 2012). The change to a realist or cosmopolitan approach to education can happen either as a result of willingness or euphoric uprising. The education sector in different countries has been purpose driven by the needs of each country. However, with globalization coming into play, several questions have arisen as to the efficacy of training students to serve in a given locale. As such, there have been calls for adoption of a cosmopolitan approach to education. Realism, on the other hand has been advocating for the preservation of culture. This has been aptly pointed out by Huntington (1993) who argues that culture is likely to be the frontier of conflict.
These aspects of globalization have had an effect on education, world citizenship and policy development in many ways. The effects of globalization on education have been mostly positive, with many countries adopting a realism approach to their education policies. This is because most nations would like to impart their cultural background to their future generations. When this happens, however, there is a conflict of interest when globalization occurs since a person is not inclined to notice other cultures. This leads to loss of interest and increases the likelihood of conflict between the different cultures. Huntington describes this process as a collision of civilization (Huntington 1993). A world citizen does not recognize any boundaries between cultures and hence can be negatively affected by realism which has clear distinction between cultures (Sen 2007). The approach taken by realism can be equated to capitalism since the different groups of people look out for their interests. Education teaches people the value of understanding self and the environment. In realism, it can be seen that the only positive environment perceived by the students is their immediate environment. Globalization would, therefore, have a negative impact in such an environment as there is bound to be conflict between the different interests of the players.
Cosmopolitanism is an approach that would greatly favor globalization, education and world citizenship. This is because this approach removes any boundaries in education and trains a person to adopt and accept new cultures. This approach differs with realism in that it does not define a culture or accept the existence of one. As such, it becomes vital to understand that educational approaches that utilize this theory produce students who are globally acceptable. This enhances the issue of world citizenship and increases the efficacy of education since a person can be able to serve his community, though cultures do not exist in cosmopolitanism, as well as other cultures. This means that cosmopolitanism is likely to have a positive influence on education as well as the concept of world citizenship.
Relationship between Education and Citizenship
Citizenship is the act of belonging to a given political landscape and enjoying all the rights as well as responsibilities in that particular political area. As such, the rights enjoyed by a citizen are a direct result of belonging. Countries establish education policies and curricula to ensure that its citizens are responsible enough to enjoy their rights and fulfill their obligations to the nation (Kymlicka 2003). This means that education is geared towards improving or maintaining the status quo in a country. Knowledge of expectations from a country enables a citizen to fulfill his duties to the local community and serve the interests of the nation.
As such, the education system developed by a given country must be in line with the goals of the country, regardless of whether such goals contradict those of another nation. To develop responsible citizenship, a country must, therefore, develop an education system that favors its goals and imparts the required knowledge. However, this form of knowledge restricts movement as it only teaches one kind of citizenship, which is defined by the political boundaries that such a citizen resides. This means that globalization may be hindered by such an education system. As has already been noted, most countries adopt a realism approach to education meaning that the education systems in such countries support the autonomy of the geopolitical landscape.
Ethical and Political Values in Education for Global Citizenship
Globalization has brought about the need for cosmopolitan education. Although this approach to education does not necessarily abandon local culture and citizenship, it emphasizes on the need to understand that there are other cultures which may not completely rhyme with local cultures (Crittenden 2007). It, therefore, calls for understanding and a shift of education policies to a standard that can enable a person serve other nations.
This may be seen to be in conflict with the main purpose that nations establish education. When a person is able to serve other people and being self-conscious to ensure that actions are in line with the civilization of those people, there is increased likelihood that nations may not have responsible citizens. This is because a person will only act in an ethical manner, avoiding negative effects to the other culture despite the importance of such responsibilities to the nation. In effect, a citizen may face a dilemma between fulfilling his citizen responsibility and caring for other cultures (Misco 2010). This dilemma affects the political values of a nation and its people.
By approaching citizen education using the realism method, political differences between different cultures are enhanced. This is because the education undertaken through this approach emphasizes cultural differences and this leads to drawing of lines between different geo-political boundaries (Brighouse 2007). As such, the ethical responsibility taught in this type of approach to education is one that caters for the interests of the nation rather than the globe. The political implication includes slowed cooperation between different nations as they all emphasize on the interests of the nation. In addition, it indicates that the cultural differences between different civilizations cannot be overcome. The result is sharp differences between ideologies in different parts of the world. Although this approach serves the needs of the nation at the time, it denies the citizens their right of acting in a free manner. This is because the education received curtails the ability of a citizen to engage in critical thinking and hence restricts the intellectual development of such a person. In addition, the country also stands to lose as it can not acquire intellectual wealth from outside. If all countries adopted such an approach, cooperation between countries would be greatly hampered and the concept of a global or world citizen would never materialize. Fortunately, liberalism has allowed states and citizens to engage in different approaches to education such as cosmopolitanism.
Cosmopolitanism is a belief that education should be for the greater good of humanity, not just a given political area. As such, it emphasizes the training of global rather than local students through imparting of ideas that enable citizens to develop a conscious for other communities (Appiah 2007). While realism emphasizes knowledge for the nation, cosmopolitanism approaches education as a process of critical thought. This enables learners to be able to adapt to any geographical location they may be working. Cosmopolitanism allows people to set aside their allegiance to a given political boundary and profess unitary support for the global population. This has been a major factor in fuelling globalization as people have been able to mix freely and enjoy new cultures without necessarily destroying their own culture. The political implication for this approach is a reduction in boundaries differentiating people and opening up of geographical space for critical learning. The global citizen is able to handle the different cultures in a manner that supports his culture and the culture of different communities. In addition, Huntington (1993) has noted that although civilization differences may not lead to violence, experience has shown that such a clash ultimately leads to hostility between cultures. Cosmopolitanism, therefore, serves to reduce cultural differences by enabling people to think differently when it comes to the global picture. The adoption of this approach may lead to the development of a full-blown world citizen.
The main purpose for educating a global citizen is to get rid of the cultural lines that have been drawn by cultural differences. Religion and other factors that affect the smooth interaction of different groups can be enhanced through education. In such a case, education will play a reconciliatory role for the different civilizations that exist leading to a society that is tolerable of each other. This would pertinently address the issue of globalization and improve the likelihood of achieving a global citizen. Considering both approaches to education, that of realism and cosmopolitanism, antagonists of each system have failed to disagree on which approach best suits the current developmental organization. National values are of great important to those who advocate for the realism approach while critical thought is vital for cosmopolitanism. The fundamentals, however, remain the same in both types of education and the only difference is the level of action that is required of a citizen. Realists emphasize national values while cosmopolitanism approaches education on a wider responsibility scale for the citizen. This has created a tension in teaching as tutors are torn between using the realism and cosmopolitan approach.
Teaching Tensions
Teachers have faced a dilemma in inculcating knowledge to the students especially when such knowledge is controversial. The main purpose of education, as set out by nations, is to ensure that they have a generation that will take the responsibilities placed upon them and steer the country to success. However, the teaching process poses a serious concern for teachers who have to decide on how to handle issues that are controversial in classrooms (Hicks & Holden 2007). The controversy may arise when children are from different backgrounds and they may not agree with ideals being taught in class. Democracy, for example, has been a topic that is widely read. However, its appropriateness in some countries is questionable. Countries such as China do not practice democratic rule and students from such a country may find it difficult comprehending its importance or even agreeing with its values. Teachers, therefore, have to come up with a strategy for handling all these issues and ensuring that learning takes place, despite the limitations.
Students may be able to develop their own judgment of information and this means that they develop critical thinking capability. This means that they are able to understand issues that affect their lives and they can relate such issues with other people in society. Education would, therefore, play a crucial role in enhancing student capability of developing a positive attitude towards global citizenship (Oxfam 2006). This approach may only be applicable in cosmopolitanism since realism is only concerned with the positive outcome of national values. In a country which does not practice democracy, it would be hard for such a topic to be included in the curricula and in positive light. As such, students need to learn the controversial issues that affect their lives, how they are perceived in different cultures and how they can respond to such issues without causing any harm. This knowledge is vital in creation of global and world citizens.
Political Theories and World Citizenship
Realism has had a negative impact on world citizenship as it emphasizes differentiation of cultures and civilizations leading to reduced integration of people. Interaction of different civilizations is likely to lead to conflict (Aysha 2003). However, maintaining a unique culture provides a person with the benefit of identifying self and this can be beneficial in developing world citizenship. Cosmopolitanism has greatly enhanced the value of world citizenship and accelerated the journey towards the recognition of world citizenship. This has been greatly aided by liberalism which has allowed people to take development into their own hands and steer the development of new outcomes (Camicia & Franklin 2010). As such, these theories play a crucial role in the development of globalization and world citizenship albeit in different intensity and urgency.
Positive and Negative Impact of realism and World Citizenship and Education
Realism, as noted above, has a negative influence to the concept of world citizenship. In addition, its effect on education can also be considered negative. This is because it emphasizes on the current environment hence ignoring the larger picture. This restricts the ability of a person to think and to develop. However, it is important to note that concentration on a particular culture can lead to a better understanding of the environment in that area. Realism, therefore, enhances education positively for people in a given political area. This can be considered a positive influence on education since the intensity of learning is increased in realism.
Due to this concentration, realism does not support world citizenship.
Positive and Negative Impact of Cosmopolitanism on World Citizenship and Education
Cosmopolitanism mostly affects world citizenship in a positive way. This is because it encourages understanding of other cultures and hence a person develops tolerance for such cultures. However, a person may lose his identity in the process and this means that the diversity which creates world citizenship may be lacking hence it becomes a negative influence. When education is based on cosmopolitanism, the impact is mostly positive as this concept supports critical thinking. As such, education can be developed to fit all cultures that are available. This encourages diversity in learning. However, the information learned by people has a broad coverage hence reducing its intensity. In essence, this is a negative influence on education.
A Clash of Civilizations
Civilizations are the different cultures that exist in the world. These cultures have differing expectations and responsibilities. As such, they might experience conflicts of interest with other cultures and this leads to the development of hostilities between them. Although the hostilities may not necessarily be violent, Huntington (1993) notes that violence is a likely result from such conflict. The education system developed by countries teaches patriotism and stresses on the importance of culture to the citizens. In most cases, such citizens will always act in the interest of their culture and this leads to conflicts between different cultures. The new war will, therefore, be based on cultures rather than economic or political affiliations. This will present the world with a larger war as there are many cultures which may be in conflict. This will also play a role in the process of realizing world citizenship or even to a lesser extent, global citizenship.
Conclusion
Globalization has played a major role in shaping the world into what it is today. This
case study sought to show that cosmopolitanism as a political and globalization theory has positively affected education outcomes. Realism as a political theory serves the interests of the nation without regard to the outside world as opposed to cosmopolitanism which focuses on the world as a unitary object rather than a patch of subdivisions. Education has a great effect on citizenship as it enables a person to understand values that shape his life as well as factors that affect other cultures. In this regard, it enables a person to coexist peacefully with other people. The concept of a world citizen is, therefore, likely to develop if the world was to approach education in a cosmopolitanism manner. Controversial topics established during such lessons would play a great role in enabling a person to learn of values that shape the world and improve the likelihood of global citizenship. In summary, the political theories of globalization can be used effectively to develop world citizenship although when used separately, they might achieve the opposite. Education would play a great role in determining the different forms of citizenships brought about by globalization.
